An international team of archaeologists has analyzed hundreds of ancient human remains found in Europe’s wetlands, revealing that these “bog bodies” were part of a tradition that spanned millennia. People were buried in swamps from prehistoric times to early modern times. The team also found that, when the cause of death could be determined, most met a violent end. The findings were presented in an article published in the magazine Antiquity.
Several bog bodies are famous for being extremely well preserved, such as the UK’s Lindow Man, the The man from Tollund from Denmark and the Girl from Yde from the Netherlands. These individuals offer a snapshot of life in the distant past, with researchers able to reconstruct details such as their last meals and even the cause of death – most were killed in what is often interpreted as human sacrifice. However, these well-preserved examples are just a fraction of what has been found.
“Literally thousands of people have met their end in swamps, only to be found again much later during peat cutting,” said Dr. Roy van Beek, from the University of Wageningen (Netherlands), first author of the study. “The well-preserved examples tell only a small part of this much larger story.”
Three main categories
The Doctor. van Beek and a team of Dutch, Swedish and Estonian researchers set out to carry out a detailed, large-scale study of the hundreds of bog bodies found in Europe. Their research analyzed more than 1,000 individuals from 266 locations across the continent to build a more complete understanding of these bodies.
The bodies found in swamps examined in this research can be divided into three main categories: “swamp mummies”, the famous bodies with preserved skin, soft tissue and hair; “swamp skeletons”, complete bodies, of which only the bones were preserved; and partial remains of mummies or marsh skeletons.
The different body types are mainly the result of different preservation conditions: some swamps are better suited to preserving human tissue, while others better preserve bones. As such, the distribution doesn’t tell us much about past human behavior, and focusing on just one type leads to an incomplete picture.
new image
“The new study shows that the strong emphasis of previous archaeological research on a small group of spectacular swamp mummies has distorted our views,” said Dr. van Beek. “All three categories provide invaluable information, and by combining them, an entirely new picture emerges.”
Examining all three bog body types reveals that they are part of a deeply rooted tradition spanning millennia. The phenomenon begins in southern Scandinavia during the Neolithic, around 5000 BC, and gradually spreads across northern Europe. More recent discoveries, in Ireland, the United Kingdom and Germany, show that the tradition continued into the Middle Ages and into early modern times.
The new study also demonstrates that many findings show evidence of violence. Where cause of death can be determined, most appear to have met a gruesome end and were likely intentionally left in swamps. This violence is often interpreted as ritualistic sacrifices, executed criminals or victims of violence. However, in recent centuries, written sources indicate that there have been a significant number of accidental deaths in swamps, as well as suicides.
Diverse and complex phenomenon
“This shows that we shouldn’t look for a single explanation for all findings,” said Dr. van Beek. “Accidental deaths and suicides may also have been more common in earlier periods.”
The team also discovered that there were hot spots for swamp bodies: swamps where the remains of several people were found. In some cases, these findings reflect a single act, such as the mass burial of those killed in battle. Other swamps were used repeatedly and human remains were accompanied by a wide range of other objects that are interpreted as ritual offerings, ranging from animal bones to weapons or bronze ornaments. Such swamps are interpreted as places of worship, which must have occupied a central place in the belief systems of local communities. Another notable category is formed by the so-called “war looting sites”, where large amounts of weapons are found next to human remains.
“In short, the fascinating new picture that emerges is that of an ancient, diverse and complex phenomenon that tells multiple stories around major human themes such as violence, religion and tragic loss,” said Dr. van Beek.
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